The Indemnity Act shields officials from accountability

After a trial lasting more than four years, the remaining defendants were found not guilty. The judgment was a major defeat for the state's attempt to criminalize the Congress movement.

The apartheid state developed Robben Island as a maximum-security site for political imprisonment. It later held leaders and members of several liberation movements.

The law permitted twelve-day detention without bail and criminalized prohibited gatherings, strengthening the state's tools against political organizing.

The ANC-organized action opposed the establishment of a white republic without democratic participation by the Black majority. Large numbers of workers stayed home despite intimidation.

South Africa became a republic and left the Commonwealth. A nationwide stay-at-home challenged a constitutional change made without consent of the Black majority.

After peaceful political activity was outlawed and repressed, MK announced itself through attacks on state installations. Its early strategy sought to avoid loss of life.

In his statement 'We don't want crumbs,' Luthuli rejected the government's homeland policy and demanded equal citizenship rather than fragmented ethnic administrations.

The confrontation reflected the growth of underground armed resistance after the PAC was banned. A policeman was killed and several others injured.

Police captured Mandela after seventeen months underground. He had organized resistance and travelled abroad to seek political and military support.

The restriction isolated Joseph from political and social life and illustrated how banning and house arrest targeted women as well as men in the liberation movement.