A national stay-at-home begins

Facing criticism from Commonwealth leaders over apartheid, Verwoerd withdrew South Africa's application to remain after becoming a republic.

About 1,400 delegates from many bodies demanded a national convention elected by all adults. Nelson Mandela was chosen to coordinate action through the National Action Council.

After a trial lasting more than four years, the remaining defendants were found not guilty. The judgment was a major defeat for the state's attempt to criminalize the Congress movement.

The apartheid state developed Robben Island as a maximum-security site for political imprisonment. It later held leaders and members of several liberation movements.

The law permitted twelve-day detention without bail and criminalized prohibited gatherings, strengthening the state's tools against political organizing.

South Africa became a republic and left the Commonwealth. A nationwide stay-at-home challenged a constitutional change made without consent of the Black majority.

Applied retrospectively to 21 March 1960, the act protected the government and its agents from legal responsibility for violence and torture carried out in official duties.

After peaceful political activity was outlawed and repressed, MK announced itself through attacks on state installations. Its early strategy sought to avoid loss of life.

In his statement 'We don't want crumbs,' Luthuli rejected the government's homeland policy and demanded equal citizenship rather than fragmented ethnic administrations.

The confrontation reflected the growth of underground armed resistance after the PAC was banned. A policeman was killed and several others injured.