Helen Joseph becomes the first person placed under house arrest under the Sabotage Act

Applied retrospectively to 21 March 1960, the act protected the government and its agents from legal responsibility for violence and torture carried out in official duties.

After peaceful political activity was outlawed and repressed, MK announced itself through attacks on state installations. Its early strategy sought to avoid loss of life.

In his statement 'We don't want crumbs,' Luthuli rejected the government's homeland policy and demanded equal citizenship rather than fragmented ethnic administrations.

The confrontation reflected the growth of underground armed resistance after the PAC was banned. A policeman was killed and several others injured.

Police captured Mandela after seventeen months underground. He had organized resistance and travelled abroad to seek political and military support.

The resolution condemned apartheid, called for diplomatic and economic measures, and established the Special Committee on South Africa to sustain international action.

Mandela was punished for inciting the 1961 stay-at-home and leaving South Africa without a passport. He used the trial to challenge the legitimacy of white minority rule.

Poqo members marched from Mbekweni toward Paarl to attack state institutions and free detainees. Police clashes killed activists and led to wide arrests and executions.

The committee created by the General Assembly began coordinating international scrutiny and opposition to the apartheid system.

Independent African states formed the OAU with liberation from colonialism and white minority rule among its central commitments. It supported movements across southern Africa.