Poqo members clash with police in Langa

The ANC-organized action opposed the establishment of a white republic without democratic participation by the Black majority. Large numbers of workers stayed home despite intimidation.

South Africa became a republic and left the Commonwealth. A nationwide stay-at-home challenged a constitutional change made without consent of the Black majority.

Applied retrospectively to 21 March 1960, the act protected the government and its agents from legal responsibility for violence and torture carried out in official duties.

After peaceful political activity was outlawed and repressed, MK announced itself through attacks on state installations. Its early strategy sought to avoid loss of life.

In his statement 'We don't want crumbs,' Luthuli rejected the government's homeland policy and demanded equal citizenship rather than fragmented ethnic administrations.

Police captured Mandela after seventeen months underground. He had organized resistance and travelled abroad to seek political and military support.

The restriction isolated Joseph from political and social life and illustrated how banning and house arrest targeted women as well as men in the liberation movement.

The resolution condemned apartheid, called for diplomatic and economic measures, and established the Special Committee on South Africa to sustain international action.

Mandela was punished for inciting the 1961 stay-at-home and leaving South Africa without a passport. He used the trial to challenge the legitimacy of white minority rule.

Poqo members marched from Mbekweni toward Paarl to attack state institutions and free detainees. Police clashes killed activists and led to wide arrests and executions.