India conducts a series of nuclear tests

The summit sought to redefine NAM after the Cold War and addressed Palestine, development, debt and reform of international institutions. Leaders argued that the disappearance of one bloc had not...

The final document called for a more focused movement and stronger coordination. It retained the claims of sovereignty and economic justice while adapting NAM’s methods to a changing global order.

The Constitutional Assembly adopted a constitution based on equality, universal suffrage and rights after apartheid. This was a major institutional outcome of the liberation struggle, although the...

The crisis exposed the vulnerability of developing economies to volatile capital flows and external financial pressures. It echoed NAM’s older demand for a fairer economic system, now under conditions...

The climate treaty set targets for industrialized countries, recognizing their greater historical responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions. This principle of differentiated responsibility echoed...

Pakistan’s tests followed India’s and intensified regional rivalry. The episode showed how states that had criticized a discriminatory nuclear regime could also seek nuclear deterrence, sharpening...

The summit, held from 29 August to 3 September, was chaired by Nelson Mandela’s South Africa. Delegates called for renewed NAM relevance and discussed poverty, development, peace and the legacy of...

The UN session opened days after the 12th NAM summit in Durban. Developing states carried debates over debt, sanctions, Palestine and reform of global institutions into the Assembly, where formal...

Indonesian President B. J. Habibie announced that East Timor could choose between special autonomy within Indonesia and separation. The proposal followed 24 years of Indonesian occupation and East...

The bombing began without explicit Security Council authorization. It intensified debate about humanitarian intervention, the UN Charter and whether powerful states applied sovereignty rules...