The Civil Rights Act of 1960 adds voting-rights enforcement measures

Thousands marched from Langa and Nyanga to police headquarters in central Cape Town. Philip Kgosana led the peaceful demonstration amid opposition to pass laws and repression after the shootings....

The government banned the ANC and PAC following the anti-pass protests and declaration of emergency. The bans criminalized central organizations of African political opposition and forced changes in...

Student activists met at Shaw University on 15–17 April at Ella Baker’s invitation and formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. They shared experiences and developed an independent...

The South West Africa People’s Organisation was founded, developing from earlier organizing including the Ovamboland People’s Organisation. It sought to oppose South African rule and build national...

Togo became independent after a period of French administration as a United Nations trust territory. Nationalist campaigning challenged outside authority and demanded sovereignty. The transfer of...

Following months of sit-ins, local pressure and negotiations, several downtown Nashville lunch counters began serving Black customers on a nonsegregated basis. Student organization helped change...

Police broke up a gathering at Ngquza Hill and killed at least eleven participants. The meeting belonged to the Mpondo resistance against imposed Bantu Authorities and coercive rural rule. The...

Madagascar became fully independent following negotiations, after decades of anticolonial struggle and severe repression of the 1947 uprising. Sovereignty ended formal French rule. The outcome...

The former Belgian Congo became independent after nationalist struggle. Political sovereignty repudiated a colonial system built on coercion and racial hierarchy. In the DTM framework, replacing the...

The former Italian-administered trust territory joined the recently independent former British Somaliland to form the Somali Republic. Nationalist demands challenged imperial division and outside...