Locarno treaties guarantee western borders but leave eastern borders exposed

The Lausanne convention required the compulsory exchange of most Greek Orthodox residents of Turkey and Muslim residents of Greece, with limited exceptions. It turned religious identity into a...

Lausanne recognized the sovereignty of the new Turkish state and replaced the failed Sèvres treaty. It confirmed borders and addressed population exchange, while leaving Kurdish aspirations and...

The Turkish Republic was proclaimed after the Ottoman monarchy’s abolition and the national movement’s military and diplomatic victories. The republic emerged from imperial collapse, war, mass...

The London agreements put the Dawes Plan into effect, rescheduling Germany’s reparations and arranging international loans. It eased the crisis following French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr, but...

Druze fighters in Jabal al-Druze attacked French forces, beginning an uprising that spread across Syria and into Lebanon. Peasants, workers, veterans, and urban nationalists joined the revolt...

Germany entered the League of Nations with a permanent seat on its Council after Locarno and the Dawes reparation plan. Its admission marked a move from exclusion toward diplomatic reintegration,...

Violence spread from Jerusalem after months of disputes over the Western Wall/Buraq and British mandate policy. The crisis was rooted in growing opposition to land loss, immigration, and the absence...

Vietnamese soldiers in the French colonial army joined members of the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng in a revolt at Yên Bái. The uprising was quickly defeated and followed by executions and arrests. It...

Gandhi and a group of volunteers set out from Sabarmati toward the Arabian Sea to defy the colonial salt monopoly. Salt taxation burdened ordinary households and made a visible focus for mass protest....

Iraq and Britain signed a treaty that prepared the formal end of the mandate while maintaining British military access, consultation rights, and strategic influence. Iraqi nationalists criticized...