Cairo Conference designs British rule across the Middle East

French troops defeated Syrian forces at Maysalun and entered Damascus, ending the independent government proclaimed by the Syrian National Congress. The conquest established French rule under the...

Gandhi and the Indian National Congress launched non-cooperation, urging people to surrender colonial titles, leave government posts, boycott foreign goods, and build Indian institutions. The campaign...

The Universal Negro Improvement Association opened its first international convention in New York. Delegates from across the African diaspora debated collective self-determination, racial equality,...

The treaty proposed severe territorial losses and foreign controls over the Ottoman state, including provisions for Armenian independence and a possible Kurdish region. Turkish nationalist forces...

Polish forces halted the Red Army’s advance toward Warsaw in a battle that reshaped the border struggle in Eastern Europe. The war involved competing national projects, revolutionary ambitions, and...

The peace treaty ended the Polish-Soviet War and set a border that left millions of Ukrainians and Belarusians outside their national republics. The treaty’s terms reflected bargaining among states...

Rif resistance fighters under Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi defeated Spanish colonial forces near Annual. The collapse of Spain’s positions exposed the violence and fragility of its...

Representatives of Soviet Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, and Turkey signed a treaty defining borders in the South Caucasus. The settlement displaced earlier wartime and postwar claims,...

France and the Turkish National Movement signed an agreement ending hostilities in Cilicia and adjusting the frontier between French-controlled Syria and Turkey. The settlement recognized the...

The treaty established the Irish Free State while allowing six counties in the north to remain within the United Kingdom. It ended one phase of conflict but divided Irish nationalists and laid...