Treaty of Kars fixes borders without popular consent

The treaty proposed severe territorial losses and foreign controls over the Ottoman state, including provisions for Armenian independence and a possible Kurdish region. Turkish nationalist forces...

Polish forces halted the Red Army’s advance toward Warsaw in a battle that reshaped the border struggle in Eastern Europe. The war involved competing national projects, revolutionary ambitions, and...

British officials met in Cairo to decide how to administer territories Britain had occupied or received as mandates. The conference promoted Faisal as ruler of Iraq and Abdullah in Transjordan,...

The peace treaty ended the Polish-Soviet War and set a border that left millions of Ukrainians and Belarusians outside their national republics. The treaty’s terms reflected bargaining among states...

Rif resistance fighters under Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi defeated Spanish colonial forces near Annual. The collapse of Spain’s positions exposed the violence and fragility of its...

France and the Turkish National Movement signed an agreement ending hostilities in Cilicia and adjusting the frontier between French-controlled Syria and Turkey. The settlement recognized the...

The treaty established the Irish Free State while allowing six counties in the north to remain within the United Kingdom. It ended one phase of conflict but divided Irish nationalists and laid...

At the Washington Conference, Japan agreed to restore Shandong’s former German-leased territory and railway rights to China, while retaining commercial privileges. The settlement followed China’s...

Britain formally ended the protectorate and declared Egypt independent, while reserving control over defense, imperial communications, foreign interests, and Sudan. The declaration followed the mass...

The Bondelswarts rose against oppressive taxation and colonial policing in South West Africa, which South Africa administered under a League mandate. South African forces used aircraft, machine...