Deportation trains carry Iași pogrom survivors

German occupation authorities sealed the Warsaw ghetto, confining hundreds of thousands of Jews in a small area behind walls and fences. Starvation, disease, forced labor, and overcrowding were policy...

After German authorities arrested Jewish men in Amsterdam, Dutch workers launched a strike that spread to other cities. It was a rare public protest against anti-Jewish persecution under occupation;...

Following the Axis invasion and dismemberment of Yugoslavia, Ustaša authorities proclaimed the German- and Italian-sponsored NDH. Its regime enacted racial laws and organized persecution and mass...

Operation Barbarossa began a war of conquest framed by Nazi leaders as a racial and anti-Bolshevik campaign. Einsatzgruppen, police units, military formations, Romanian forces, and local collaborators...

Romanian officials and military units, sometimes assisted by German soldiers, carried out a pogrom in Iași as Romania joined Nazi Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union. At least 8,000 Jews were...

Hermann Göring authorized Reinhard Heydrich to prepare a plan for a “total solution” to the so-called Jewish question in German-controlled Europe. The document records bureaucratic coordination at a...

A police decree required Jews over age six in the Reich to wear a yellow Star of David in public. Forced marking extended social isolation and facilitated police control and deportation; comparable...

German occupation authorities established two ghettos in Vilna (Vilnius). Lithuanian auxiliaries took part in persecution and mass shootings, while Jewish residents faced confinement, forced labor,...

German forces and auxiliaries ordered Kyiv’s Jews to assemble, then shot 33,771 people at the Babyn Yar ravine on September 29–30, according to German reports. The massacre relied on organized state...

Romanian and German forces occupied Odesa, a major Black Sea port with a large, multiethnic Jewish community. Romanian occupation quickly brought anti-Jewish policies, forced labor, deportations,...