Germany invades the Soviet Union

The Vichy government promulgated a law defining Jews and excluding them from public service and several professions, without being directly ordered by Germany. Vichy officials used state...

Vichy annulled the 1870 Crémieux Decree, stripping most Algerian Jews of French citizenship and returning them to a subordinate legal status. This decision operated within French settler colonial rule...

German occupation authorities sealed the Warsaw ghetto, confining hundreds of thousands of Jews in a small area behind walls and fences. Starvation, disease, forced labor, and overcrowding were policy...

After German authorities arrested Jewish men in Amsterdam, Dutch workers launched a strike that spread to other cities. It was a rare public protest against anti-Jewish persecution under occupation;...

Following the Axis invasion and dismemberment of Yugoslavia, Ustaša authorities proclaimed the German- and Italian-sponsored NDH. Its regime enacted racial laws and organized persecution and mass...

Romanian officials and military units, sometimes assisted by German soldiers, carried out a pogrom in Iași as Romania joined Nazi Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union. At least 8,000 Jews were...

Romanian authorities forced survivors of the Iași pogrom onto death trains. Two trains departed on June 30 for Călărași and Podu Iloaiei; thousands died from thirst, heat, suffocation, and abuse...

Hermann Göring authorized Reinhard Heydrich to prepare a plan for a “total solution” to the so-called Jewish question in German-controlled Europe. The document records bureaucratic coordination at a...

A police decree required Jews over age six in the Reich to wear a yellow Star of David in public. Forced marking extended social isolation and facilitated police control and deportation; comparable...

German occupation authorities established two ghettos in Vilna (Vilnius). Lithuanian auxiliaries took part in persecution and mass shootings, while Jewish residents faced confinement, forced labor,...