Treaty of Shimonoseki signed

After Qing defeat in the First Opium War, the treaty ceded Hong Kong Island to Britain, opened five treaty ports, and imposed an indemnity. It inaugurated a sequence of unequal treaties that...

Hong Xiuquan’s movement launched an uprising at Jintian that became a massive civil war and alternative state project. Its causes included social crisis, missionary influence, and Qing weakness. The...

The Qing government signed a treaty with the United States during the Second Opium War. The treaty opened additional ports, expanded diplomatic access, and imposed new privileges for foreign powers....

Following the Second Opium War, Qing officials signed the Convention of Beijing with Britain, extending foreign access and confirming earlier concessions; Britain also gained the southern part of...

After a prolonged siege, Qing forces captured Nanjing, ending the Taiping state. The rebellion had challenged the Qing order and devastated large regions. Its suppression relied on regional armies,...

The Guangxu Emperor was placed under house arrest and reform leaders were executed or exiled, ending the short reform movement. The crisis reflected struggles over state modernization under pressure...

During the Boxer crisis, the Qing court issued a declaration of war against foreign powers. The subsequent multinational invasion and occupation of Beijing culminated in the Boxer Protocol. This...

The Qing government signed the Boxer Protocol with foreign powers after the 1900 intervention. The agreement imposed a large indemnity and further military and diplomatic concessions. Its burden...

The Wuchang Uprising began the Xinhai Revolution, bringing down the Qing dynasty and ending imperial rule. The republic that followed faced regional militarization, foreign concessions, and uneven...

Sun Yat-sen took office as provisional president in Nanjing as the republic replaced the Qing imperial system. Republican leaders sought national unity and sovereignty, but warlordism, foreign...