Treaty of Nanjing

Commissioner Lin Zexu ordered the destruction of seized opium at Humen. The First Opium War followed, exposing Qing China to coercive imperial trade and military power. A decolonial account recognizes...

Hong Xiuquan’s movement launched an uprising at Jintian that became a massive civil war and alternative state project. Its causes included social crisis, missionary influence, and Qing weakness. The...

The Qing government signed a treaty with the United States during the Second Opium War. The treaty opened additional ports, expanded diplomatic access, and imposed new privileges for foreign powers....

Following the Second Opium War, Qing officials signed the Convention of Beijing with Britain, extending foreign access and confirming earlier concessions; Britain also gained the southern part of...

After a prolonged siege, Qing forces captured Nanjing, ending the Taiping state. The rebellion had challenged the Qing order and devastated large regions. Its suppression relied on regional armies,...

Qing China signed the treaty ending the First Sino-Japanese War, recognizing Korean independence as defined by Japan, ceding Taiwan and the Pescadores, and paying an indemnity. The defeat signaled the...