New interstate bus desegregation rules take effect

White mobs attacked Freedom Riders in Anniston and Birmingham; a bus was burned outside Anniston. The violence sought to prevent implementation of desegregation rights. Riders’ experiences exposed the...

Student activists from Nashville resumed the rides after violence threatened to end the campaign. Diane Nash helped coordinate their continuation. The decision demonstrated that organized local...

A three-day stay-at-home campaign began against the establishment of a republic without equal political participation. Mandela and other organizers demanded a democratic national convention. The...

Leaders gathered in Belgrade, then in Yugoslavia, for the first Non-Aligned summit, held through 6 September. The meeting linked opposition to colonialism with efforts to exercise independent...

Algerians demonstrated in Paris against a curfew imposed specifically on Algerians during the independence war. Police under Maurice Papon carried out lethal repression, with protesters killed and...

Local organizations formed the Albany Movement in Georgia to challenge segregation across community life. Students, churches, voting-rights organizers and women’s groups contributed to the...

Tanganyika gained independence from British administration of the UN trust territory. Julius Nyerere became prime minister of the independent state. Political sovereignty ended a system of external...

Luthuli accepted the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo, where the award for 1960 was presented in December 1961. He used the occasion to draw attention to South Africans resisting apartheid. International...

Umkhonto we Sizwe announced its existence through a manifesto and attacks on state installations. Its statement justified a turn to armed resistance by citing repression and the closure of peaceful...

Western Samoa became independent after New Zealand administration and a long history of Samoan resistance, including the Mau movement. Independence asserted Samoan political authority against colonial...