Police attack an iKongo gathering at Ngquza Hill

Student activists met at Shaw University on 15–17 April at Ella Baker’s invitation and formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. They shared experiences and developed an independent...

The South West Africa People’s Organisation was founded, developing from earlier organizing including the Ovamboland People’s Organisation. It sought to oppose South African rule and build national...

Togo became independent after a period of French administration as a United Nations trust territory. Nationalist campaigning challenged outside authority and demanded sovereignty. The transfer of...

A new federal law required preservation of election records and provided procedures for addressing discriminatory denial of voting rights. It strengthened tools available against exclusion, amid...

Following months of sit-ins, local pressure and negotiations, several downtown Nashville lunch counters began serving Black customers on a nonsegregated basis. Student organization helped change...

Madagascar became fully independent following negotiations, after decades of anticolonial struggle and severe repression of the 1947 uprising. Sovereignty ended formal French rule. The outcome...

The former Belgian Congo became independent after nationalist struggle. Political sovereignty repudiated a colonial system built on coercion and racial hierarchy. In the DTM framework, replacing the...

The former Italian-administered trust territory joined the recently independent former British Somaliland to form the Somali Republic. Nationalist demands challenged imperial division and outside...

The Woolworth lunch counter began serving Black customers after months of sit-ins and economic pressure. A local change in business practice resulted from sustained collective action. The campaign’s...

Nigeria became independent after nationalist campaigning and constitutional negotiations. The end of British political sovereignty challenged foreign control over one of Africa’s largest...