The Pan-African Conference opens in London

Spanish authorities executed José Rizal, whose writings exposed abuses of colonial government and religious power. He was a reformer rather than the commander of the armed revolution. His death became...

Revolutionaries declared Philippine independence at Kawit. The proclamation asserted that Filipinos could govern their own country after centuries of Spanish rule. It did not guarantee international...

The revolutionary constitutional congress opened at Malolos. Its delegates worked toward a constitution for a Philippine republic. Establishing political institutions challenged colonial claims that...

The First Philippine Republic was inaugurated at Malolos with Emilio Aguinaldo as president. The new state embodied a claim to national sovereignty. Its creation should be understood as Filipino...

Fighting between Filipino and United States forces began near Manila. Filipinos resisted the replacement of Spanish colonial rule by American sovereignty. The conflict exposed a contradiction...

Filipino fighters attacked the American garrison at Balangiga during resistance to United States rule. Church bells signaled the action. The attack and the destructive reprisals that followed belong...

Australia enacted the Immigration Restriction Act, a central instrument of the White Australia policy. The dictation test enabled discriminatory exclusion. The event explains an institution later...

The Commonwealth Franchise Act extended federal voting rights to many women but excluded most Aboriginal people and others by racial categories, subject to exceptions. The contrast shows that a...

Herero people rose against German colonial rule after mounting land loss and abuse. The conflict challenged an order that restricted African freedom and privileged settlers. German authorities...

German commander Lothar von Trotha issued an order targeting the Herero people after their resistance. It directed violence against a population rather than only combatants. This record documents...