Concrete practices precede written algorithms

The article shows that scholarship and cultural exchange flourished across Africa, Asia and the Islamic world during centuries often framed through Western European decline.

Greek geometry, Indian numeration and Chinese paper technology circulated through multilingual networks.

Baghdad's scholars translated and transformed materials from many regions rather than inheriting a single civilizational line.

Calling an era dark can hide thriving institutions and knowledge systems outside Western Europe.

Published on 7 March 2024, the paper examines counting, time-reckoning, ritual construction and later symbolic computation.

Claims about advanced Vedic mathematics are tested against the chronological evidence for scripts, symbols and operations.

Separating evidence from nationalist or colonial myths helps identify when distinctive developments actually occurred.

Published on 7 April 2024, the paper examines continuous-line designs as Indigenous mathematical knowledge.

Continuity, cyclicity and symmetry appear in traditions transmitted through performance and teaching.

It compares long-standing Indigenous practices with the conventional story that begins with Euler's bridges problem.