Workers and merchants in Shanghai expand the May Fourth movement

Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal against the Rowlatt Act, bringing shops, workplaces, students, and public meetings into a new form of mass anticolonial protest. The day marked a shift from elite...

Korean activists established a provisional government in exile after the March First uprising. Its founders sought to coordinate independence work across Korea and diaspora communities. The government...

Brigadier Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds. The massacre followed repressive wartime laws and protests against detention without trial. It...

Students protested in Beijing after the peace conference transferred former German rights in Shandong to Japan rather than returning them to China. The movement expanded into labor and commercial...

At its Zurich congress, the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace condemned peace terms that rewarded victors and denied self-determination. The delegates linked militarism to political...

The Versailles settlement stripped Germany of its overseas colonies and placed them under League of Nations mandates administered by victorious powers. The arrangement was described as international...

The treaty imposed territorial losses, military limits, reparations, and war responsibility language on Germany. Colonized peoples and many smaller nations were excluded from equal decision-making....

The Rawalpindi treaty ended the Third Anglo-Afghan War and recognized Afghanistan’s right to conduct its own foreign relations. It followed a British attempt to preserve imperial control over the...

Afghanistan and Britain signed the Rawalpindi treaty after fighting on the imperial frontier. The settlement reopened trade and followed a British decision to recognize Afghanistan’s freedom to...

The treaty with Austria recognized the empire’s breakup and established new borders and states. It redrew Central Europe but left ethnic minorities on all sides of new frontiers. The peace...