Women’s peace congress critiques the Versailles settlement

A revolutionary government led by Béla Kun declared a Soviet republic after the collapse of the liberal government and amid Allied territorial pressure. It drew support from workers and soldiers but...

Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal against the Rowlatt Act, bringing shops, workplaces, students, and public meetings into a new form of mass anticolonial protest. The day marked a shift from elite...

Korean activists established a provisional government in exile after the March First uprising. Its founders sought to coordinate independence work across Korea and diaspora communities. The government...

Brigadier Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds. The massacre followed repressive wartime laws and protests against detention without trial. It...

Students protested in Beijing after the peace conference transferred former German rights in Shandong to Japan rather than returning them to China. The movement expanded into labor and commercial...

Shanghai workers, students, and merchants launched a general strike after Beijing police detained students and public opinion demanded action over Shandong. The strike disrupted commerce and helped...

The Versailles settlement stripped Germany of its overseas colonies and placed them under League of Nations mandates administered by victorious powers. The arrangement was described as international...

The treaty imposed territorial losses, military limits, reparations, and war responsibility language on Germany. Colonized peoples and many smaller nations were excluded from equal decision-making....

The Rawalpindi treaty ended the Third Anglo-Afghan War and recognized Afghanistan’s right to conduct its own foreign relations. It followed a British attempt to preserve imperial control over the...

Afghanistan and Britain signed the Rawalpindi treaty after fighting on the imperial frontier. The settlement reopened trade and followed a British decision to recognize Afghanistan’s freedom to...