Treaty of Versailles imposes peace terms on Germany

Brigadier Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds. The massacre followed repressive wartime laws and protests against detention without trial. It...

Students protested in Beijing after the peace conference transferred former German rights in Shandong to Japan rather than returning them to China. The movement expanded into labor and commercial...

At its Zurich congress, the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace condemned peace terms that rewarded victors and denied self-determination. The delegates linked militarism to political...

Shanghai workers, students, and merchants launched a general strike after Beijing police detained students and public opinion demanded action over Shandong. The strike disrupted commerce and helped...

The Versailles settlement stripped Germany of its overseas colonies and placed them under League of Nations mandates administered by victorious powers. The arrangement was described as international...

The Rawalpindi treaty ended the Third Anglo-Afghan War and recognized Afghanistan’s right to conduct its own foreign relations. It followed a British attempt to preserve imperial control over the...

Afghanistan and Britain signed the Rawalpindi treaty after fighting on the imperial frontier. The settlement reopened trade and followed a British decision to recognize Afghanistan’s freedom to...

The treaty with Austria recognized the empire’s breakup and established new borders and states. It redrew Central Europe but left ethnic minorities on all sides of new frontiers. The peace...

The Act introduced dyarchy in provincial government and expanded legislative participation, while reserving key powers to British authorities. It followed Indian wartime service, the Rowlatt Act,...

The League of Nations covenant entered into force, promising collective security and a mandate system. The League’s membership excluded major powers at different times, and its mandate structure...