Muhammadiyah is established

Colonial forces under G.C.E. van Daalen attacked a fortified Alas village whose inhabitants had refused Dutch annexation. The massacre of residents, including women and children, demonstrates how...

Dutch forces landed at Sanur as part of an expedition against the kingdoms of Badung and Tabanan. The campaign followed disputes over colonial demands and advanced direct Dutch control; Balinese...

The rulers and residents of Badung marched from the palace in a final act of resistance and were shot by Dutch forces. The event, remembered as the puputan, should not be reduced to a story of...

Dewa Agung Jambe and followers resisted Dutch troops at Klungkung. The ruler and many members of the court were killed; the Dutch then established direct colonial authority. The event marked conquest,...

Javanese students and young professionals formed Budi Utomo, an organization that promoted education and social advancement. Often treated as a marker of national awakening, it arose under...

The Dutch East Indies’ People’s Council opened under Governor-General Van Limburg Stirum. Its membership and powers were limited; it was not a sovereign parliament, but Indonesian representatives used...

Communist Party members and local supporters launched an armed revolt against colonial authority. It was suppressed, followed by arrests and exile to Boven-Digoel. The episode is included as an...

A second uprising began in West Sumatra after colonial authorities had already repressed revolt in Java. The Dutch response included executions, imprisonment, censorship, and exile, including...

The PNI organized around Indonesian self-determination and rejected gradual assimilation into Dutch political structures. Its emergence helped transform nationalism into a mass political project,...

Delegates from youth organizations met in Batavia to build a shared national movement across regional and linguistic identities. Their congress took place under colonial surveillance and censorship.