F. W. de Klerk announces the unbanning of liberation organizations

The summit met as communist governments in Eastern Europe faced growing challenges and the Cold War order was weakening. Leaders debated how NAM could retain an independent voice and advance...

The summit reaffirmed political independence and economic cooperation while addressing the changing international system. The debate marked a transition from a movement defined by bloc politics toward...

Voters chose representatives to prepare an independent constitution after decades of South African administration and a long armed and diplomatic liberation struggle. The election fulfilled a...

The opening of the Berlin Wall became a symbol of the rapid weakening of the Cold War order in Europe. For NAM, the change raised questions about whether a new international order would become more...

George H. W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev discussed the changing relationship between their states. The summit signaled a turning point in superpower rivalry, but it did not resolve colonial legacies,...

Mandela’s release followed a global liberation struggle and years of international pressure, including NAM campaigns and sanctions advocacy. His release opened negotiations, while structural...

Namibia became independent after UN-supervised elections and a long struggle led by SWAPO. Its independence fulfilled a core anti-colonial objective repeatedly advanced by NAM, the OAU and the...

Iraq’s invasion raised a sharp test for states that had long defended sovereignty and non-intervention. NAM members differed over how to respond, revealing the difficulty of applying principles...

The Council authorized states cooperating with Kuwait to use “all necessary means” if Iraq did not withdraw by 15 January 1991. The resolution exposed tensions between collective security, sovereignty...

The campaign followed Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait and Security Council authorization. NAM debates over the crisis highlighted the unequal influence of major powers over decisions about enforcement and...