Russian troops bombard the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad

Iran’s Second Majlis convened after the restoration of constitutional government. It renewed parliamentary politics under continuing foreign pressure and later became the arena for opposition to...

Russia issued an ultimatum demanding dismissal of Morgan Shuster and his financial team, backed by a threat against Tehran. The Majlis resisted, making financial reform and control over appointments a...

Mohammad Khiabani condemned the Russian ultimatum in an emergency Majlis session and defended Iranian sovereignty and self-determination. His speech opposed the cabinet’s willingness to accept foreign...

The cabinet and regent closed Iran’s Second Majlis and accepted Russian demands over financial adviser Morgan Shuster. Domestic executive action under external military pressure curtailed parliament’s...

Russian forces hanged Mirza Ali Theqat al-Islam in Tabriz. A reformist religious leader committed to constitutionalism, he became a victim of the military repression that accompanied Russian...

Iran declared neutrality, but foreign armies operated on its territory. Russian military power remained a constraint on Iranian sovereignty.

After Russia’s February Revolution weakened tsarist authority, Khiabani and colleagues revived the Tabriz Democrat party branch. Iranian activists used the opening to reorganize.

The new Soviet government called for peace without annexations and rejected secret diplomacy. Its programme challenged the imperial practices that had constrained Iran.

A published Soviet appeal rejected the agreement dividing Iran into spheres and promised Russian troop withdrawal after hostilities. The promise raised hopes of recovering independence.

Article 10 of the Brest-Litovsk armistice recognized neutral Iran’s territorial inviolability and provided for Russian and Ottoman troop withdrawal. Iran’s situation entered the peace negotiations.