Irish Civil War begins over the treaty settlement

France and the Turkish National Movement signed an agreement ending hostilities in Cilicia and adjusting the frontier between French-controlled Syria and Turkey. The settlement recognized the...

The treaty established the Irish Free State while allowing six counties in the north to remain within the United Kingdom. It ended one phase of conflict but divided Irish nationalists and laid...

At the Washington Conference, Japan agreed to restore Shandong’s former German-leased territory and railway rights to China, while retaining commercial privileges. The settlement followed China’s...

Britain formally ended the protectorate and declared Egypt independent, while reserving control over defense, imperial communications, foreign interests, and Sudan. The declaration followed the mass...

The Bondelswarts rose against oppressive taxation and colonial policing in South West Africa, which South Africa administered under a League mandate. South African forces used aircraft, machine...

The Turkish Grand National Assembly abolished the sultanate, formally ending the Ottoman dynasty’s political rule. The decision followed military victory by the Turkish national movement and the...

The Irish Free State came into being under a constitution built around the 1921 treaty, with dominion status and a continuing relationship to the British Commonwealth. The new state had substantial...

The Lausanne convention required the compulsory exchange of most Greek Orthodox residents of Turkey and Muslim residents of Greece, with limited exceptions. It turned religious identity into a...

Lausanne recognized the sovereignty of the new Turkish state and replaced the failed Sèvres treaty. It confirmed borders and addressed population exchange, while leaving Kurdish aspirations and...

The Turkish Republic was proclaimed after the Ottoman monarchy’s abolition and the national movement’s military and diplomatic victories. The republic emerged from imperial collapse, war, mass...