US troops massacre Cheyenne and Arapaho at Sand Creek

The proclamation declared freedom for enslaved people in designated Confederate territory and opened military service to Black men. It did not abolish slavery everywhere. Freedom seekers and Black...

A Union operation guided by Harriet Tubman reached plantations along the Combahee River and enabled hundreds to escape slavery. The raid began the previous night. Local knowledge and Black...

British forces crossed the Mangatāwhiri boundary into Waikato, beginning the invasion of Kīngitanga territory. Māori resistance defended land and autonomous political organization. Military conquest...

British forces assaulted the defensive line at Rangiriri during the Waikato invasion. Māori defenders contested the advance into their territory. The battle connects military resistance to a wider...

After the battle at Rangiriri, British forces took Māori defenders prisoner. The circumstances of the white flag and surrender remain important to interpretations of the event. Their detention...

Congress approved the proposed Thirteenth Amendment after years of abolitionist struggle and wartime emancipation. A constitutional change could remove slavery beyond the limited reach of the...

The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified, prohibiting slavery and involuntary servitude except as punishment for a crime. Ending legal ownership was a fundamental victory. The exception and unequal...

Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act over Andrew Johnson’s veto, asserting citizenship and equal civil rights regardless of race or previous enslavement, with exclusions. The law confronted...

The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified, providing birthright citizenship, due process, and equal protection. It challenged a racial citizenship order associated with slavery. Indigenous people under...

The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified, forbidding denial of voting rights on grounds of race, color, or previous enslavement. It did not enfranchise women or prevent all forms of suppression. Black...