Guardianship of the Jurist is presented as an alternative

Exile ended Khomeini’s direct presence in Iran but gave his opposition a powerful narrative of sacrifice and resistance.

He began exile under restrictions in Bursa, continuing religious study and communication with followers.

From the Iraqi centre of Shi‘i learning, he rebuilt teaching and political communication with Iran.

Students and visitors carried statements, books and recorded sermons from Khomeini’s circle into Iran.

In Najaf he set out the argument that qualified Islamic jurists should exercise political guardianship rather than accept monarchy.

The lectures were later published and circulated clandestinely, giving supporters a more systematic political programme.

Armed leftist militants attacked a gendarmerie post, signalling a new phase of revolutionary opposition to the Shah beyond clerical networks.

Although militarily defeated, the action became a symbol for students and intellectuals who believed peaceful political activity had been closed.

The Shah hosted foreign rulers at lavish ceremonies marking 2,500 years of monarchy while many Iranians faced poverty and political repression.

Revolutionary critics contrasted the expensive celebration with rural deprivation, inequality and dependence on foreign powers.